Haka nan rarraba da ta gaza, lambobi guda, amsoshi guda biyu masu banbanci sosai
An kira shari'ar A&S Financial. Kamfanin Adams & Smith, wani kamfani na fasaha da ke fuskantar raguwa, shekaru goma na tallace-tallace da samun riba a shafi, da kuma aiki guda: kai ne mataimakin shugaban kudi, raba dala miliyan goma na kudaden R&D tsakanin sassan Kayayyakin Masu Amfani da Kayayyakin Masana'antu. Shekaru biyar daga baya — a lokacin shari'ar, mintuna a cikin dakin — wani hukunci na biyu: wani dala miliyan ashirin daga ajiyar jari.
Barry Staw ya gudanar da dalibai 240 daga Jami'ar Illinois ta hanyar wannan a cikin tsarin biyu-biyu, wanda aka buga a matsayin Knee-deep in the Big Muddy a cikin Organizational Behavior and Human Performance a shekarar 1976. Rabin mahalarta sun yi dukkan rarrabawa da kansu; rabin sauran an gaya musu cewa wani wanda ya gabata ya yi na farko. A cikin 'yancin kai, rarrabawar da aka zaba ko ta inganta ko ta ragu.
Rukuni uku daga cikin hudu sun yi hankali, suna ba da kusan miliyan tara ga rukunin da suka ga yana fama. Rukunin na hudu — mutanen da suka zaɓi wannan rukunin kansu sannan suka kalli yadda ya gaza — sun ba da matsakaicin $13.07 miliyan. Hakan ya kasance mai mahimmanci (F(1,235) = 5.56, p < .019), kuma wannan shine babban maƙasudin. Labarai marasa kyau kawai ba su haifar da jefa kyakkyawan kuɗi bayan mummunan ba. Labarai marasa kyau game da zabin ku ne suka haifar da hakan.
Karamin eh wanda ke sayen babban eh
Hanyar tana da ƙaramin ɗan'uwanta wanda aka rubuta sosai. A cikin 1966, Jonathan Freedman da Scott Fraser sun buga Compliance without pressure: the foot-in-the-door technique a cikin Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. A cikin gwaji na biyu, masu bincike sun nemi masu gidan a California su yi wani abu mai sauƙi — su sanya hannu a kan takardar neman, ko su nuna ƙaramin alama game da tuki lafiya. Makonni biyu bayan haka, wani daban mutum ya nemi waɗannan gidajen su sanya babban, wanda aka yi da gangan ba kyau, talla ta DRIVE CAREFULLY a kan filin gaban gidan.
Rukunin kulawa, wanda aka tambaya sau ɗaya kawai, ya yarda da kashi 16.7 cikin ɗari. Gidajen da suka amince da ƙananan buƙatar da aka yi a baya sun yarda da 76 cikin ɗari. A cikin taƙaitaccen bayani na marubutan kan tsarin:
Yayin da ƙasa da kashi 20% na masu kulawa suka yarda da sanya babban alamar a gonarsu, sama da kashi 55% na masu gwaji sun yarda, tare da sama da kashi 45% a matsayin mafi ƙarancin matakin bin doka don kowanne yanayin gwaji.Ka lura da kyakkyawan tsari: kashi 76 cikin dari shine mafi kyau cell, ba matsakaici ba — babban labarin mai inganci shine cewa ƙananan alkawari na baya ya kusan uku sau bin doka. Yanzu a ƙara girma. Kasafin kuɗi na gwaji alama ce ƙanana. Kwamitin jagoranci da ya amince da shi ya ɗauki matsayi na jama'a, kuma buƙatar ta gaba ba ta isa ga masu sauraro masu zaman kansu ba.
— Freedman & Fraser, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1966)
Abin da yake kama da shi lokacin da ba a dakin gwaje-gwaje ba
Mafi kyawun shaidar tsarin ƙungiya shine baje kolin duniya. Jeffrey Ross da Barry Staw sun yi nazari kan Expo 86 a Vancouver kuma sun buga shi a cikin Administrative Science Quarterly a 1986 a matsayin samfurin haɓaka. Hasashen asarar ba ta yi jinkiri ba; ta ninka — kuma alkawarin ya tsaya duk da haka.
Ko da yake hasashen rashi yana karuwa da sauri (daga hasashen rashi na miliyan 6 a 1978 zuwa sama da miliyan 300 a 1985), gwamnatin lardin ta tsaya tsayin daka a cikin shirinta na gudanar da Expo.
— Ross & Staw, Administrative Science Quarterly (1986)
Hamsin sau mafi muni, kuma har yanzu yana ci gaba. Wannan ba wulakanci ba ne, kuma karanta shi a matsayin wulakanci shine dalilin da yasa kungiyoyi ke ci gaba da maimaita shi. Kowace shawara ta mutum a wannan hanya tana da hujja mai karewa — kuma kowace daga cikinsu ana yinsa ne ta hannun mutanen da suka riga sun goyi bayan ta a bainar jama'a.
Amma shin wannan ba kawai kuskuren farashi da aka yi ba ne?
Wannan shine korafin da ya kamata a dauki shi da muhimmanci, saboda ana amfani da su a matsayin kalmomi masu ma'ana guda biyu kuma ba haka bane. Staw ya zana iyaka da kansa a cikin Academy of Management Review a shekarar 1981:
Wani muhimmin abu na misalan shari'ar da suka gabata shine cewa jerin shawarwari suna da alaƙa da hanyar aiki maimakon zaɓi guda ɗaya.
— Barry M. Staw, Academy of Management Review (1981)
Kudin da aka riga aka kashe yana da kuskure na yanke shawara guda: lissafin kuɗi da ba za a iya dawo da su ba. Harkokin haɓaka shine tsarin ƙungiya a cikin jerin yanke shawara, inda kudin da aka riga aka kashe shine ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan da ke haifar da shi — tabbatar da kai, barazanar kai, matsalolin wakilci, haɗin gwiwar ƙungiya. Kuma shaidar tana goyon bayan wannan bambanci a cikin hanya mai rashin jin daɗi. Binciken meta na 2012 da Sleesman, Conlon, McNamara da Miles a cikin Academy of Management Journal, wanda ya ƙunshi 166 na misalai masu zaman kansu da aka ɗauka daga babban tarin labarai 917, ya gano cewa alhakin mutum (ρ = .258) da kudin da aka riga aka kashe (ρ = .243) suna daidai a girma — kuma marubutan sun lura cewa fitowar kudin da aka riga aka kashe ta kasance kasa da yadda aka zata.
"Yi watsi da kuɗaɗen da aka riga aka kashe" yana nufin kuskuren lissafi. Amma mafi ƙarfin jan hankali a cikin bayanan ba kuɗin da aka riga aka kashe ba ne — shi ne mutumin da ya kashe su yana buƙatar yanke shawarar ta kasance daidai. Tsarin duba da ke gyara lissafin kuma yana barin marubucin ba tare da an taɓa shi ba ya gyara rabin ƙananan.
Hanyar: raba shawara daga wanda ya yanke ta
Babu wani abu daga cikin wannan da aka warware ta hanyar gaya wa mutane su zama mafi gaskiya game da tarihin su. Ana warware shi ta hanyar tsara binciken don kada a yi shari'a kan tarihin.
- ✓Rubuta ka'idodin fita kafin a motsa kudi. "Muna dakatar da shi idan X ta ranar Y" yana da sauƙin yarda yayin da babu wanda ke da mallakar sakamakon, kuma kusan ba zai yiwu a yarda ba idan wani ya mallaki. Wannan shine mafi girman motsi mai tasiri da ake da shi.
- ✓Duban shari'ar, ba gwarzo ba. Karanta sake itace asalin hujja kamar yadda aka rubuta — ikirarin, shaidun, tunanin — kuma ka tambayi ko za a amince da shi a yau daga wanda ke ganin sa a karon farko. Rikodin yanke shawara yana mai da wannan zama duba takardu maimakon gasa halayya.
- ✓Juya wanda ke gabatar da sharin ci gaba ko kashewa. Idan mutumin da ke da aikin ya kuma tsara bita, haɗin gwiwar da Staw ya ware an gina shi cikin tsarin ku ta hanyar zane.
- ✓Bayyana farashin dama. Binciken meta yana gano yanayi na ragewa - daga cikinsu akwai tsammanin nadama, bayani kan farashin dama, da kuma samun sabbin bayanai a hankali. "Me kuma wannan kasafin kuɗi na wannan kwata zai iya saya?" ba magana ce ta banza ba; yana da hujja mai inganci.
- ✓Raba mutum daga matsayin a cikin rajista. Kimanta tattaunawa maimakon mutane yana nufin zakara na iya yarda da wani ikirari ba tare da yarda da hukuncin su ba — wanda shine matakin yarda da ke hana ci gaba.
Hanya ta gwiwa, kuma ruwan na tashi
Staw ya ɗauki taken sa daga waƙar Pete Seeger game da wani kwamandan da ke jagorantar rundunarsa cikin zurfin kogi, yana mai ƙoƙarin su ci gaba. Hoto ne mai kyau musamman saboda kwamandan ba mai hankali ba ne. Ya faɗi a fili cewa wannan hanya ce, wasu mutane suna kallo, kuma komawa baya yana nufin cewa sanarwar farko ba daidai ba ce.
Kungiyarku za ta sake tallafawa wani shiri da ke fuskantar gazawa. Tambayar ita ce ko wannan shawarar za a yanke ta hanyar dakin da ke karanta sharin, ko kuma ta hanyar tunanin dakin game da wanda ya sanya hannu a kai — domin a cikin bayanan Staw, lambobin guda ɗaya sun haifar da amsoshi guda biyu masu banbanci bisa ga komai sai wannan.
Hanyoyin & karin karatu
Duk wani tushen da aka ambata a cikin wannan rubutun, tare da hanyar haɗi inda hakan ya wanzu.
- •Freedman, J. L., & Fraser, S. C. (1966). Bin-damu ba tare da matsin lamba ba: Hanyar kafa kafa a ƙofar. Jaridar Halayen mutum da Harkokin zamantakewa, 4(2), 195–202. — tasirin neman ƙananan buƙatu na farko; gwajin tallan lawn da aka ambata a sama.
- •Staw, B. M. (1976). Knee-deep in the Big Muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 27–44. — gwajin A&S Financial, mahalarta 240, da kuma mu'amala ta alhakin bisa sakamako.
- •Staw, B. M. (1981). Haɓakar Ƙauna ga Hanyar Aiki. Academy of Management Review, 6(4), 577–587. — ma'anar ta hanyar tsari: jerin yanke shawara, ba zaɓi guda ba.
- •Ross, J., & Staw, B. M. (1986). Expo 86: Wani Tsarin Haɓaka. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31(2), 274–297. — hanyar hasashen asarar da aka ambata a sama.
- •Sleesman, D. J., Conlon, D. E., McNamara, G., & Miles, J. E. (2012). Tsaftace Babban Kogin: Binciken Meta-Analytic na Abubuwan Da Ke Haifar da Karuwar Kula. Jaridar Gudanarwa ta Academy, 55(3), 541–562. — 166 samfurori masu zaman kansu; alhakin kashin kai da kudaden da aka riga aka kashe a matsayin masu motsa jiki masu kama.
- •Ross, J., & Staw, B. M. (1993). Tashin Hankali da Fita daga Ƙungiya: Darussa daga Tashar Wutar Lantarki ta Shoreham. Jaridar Gudanar da Ƙungiya, 36(4), 701–732. — wani shahararren misali na dogon lokaci; an ambace shi anan don cikakken bayani, hoton sa ba a maimaita ba.